Seven Farm Fence Types: Costs, Life and Use

Which Fence Type Is Right for Your Farm?

Fence cost depends on the design, the labour and the price year. In Iowa State’s 2024 budget for a straight quarter-mile fence, a five-wire electrified high-tensile fence cost about $1.21 per foot to build, barbed wire about $1.99 and woven wire about $2.34 (materials and labour, gates excluded). Georgia extension’s cost index, which covers materials only, puts a four-rail fence of treated boards at 200 to 350, against 35 for five-strand barbed wire. Which option wins depends on what you’re containing — Iowa NRCS suggests wire heights of 10, 20 and 32 inches for an internal cattle fence and 8, 20 and 32 inches for sheep, and a security perimeter around equipment or a homestead needs a different structure than a pasture boundary. This guide breaks down agricultural fence by type, by cost, by animal, and by USDA specification, so you can match a fence to your actual containment problem instead of guessing.

The United States had 1.9 million farms as of the 2022 Census of Agriculture, according to USDA NASS — the census is taken every five years, so check the NASS AgCensus page for the date of the next release. Fence choice varies with the species and the job, so one farm may use more than one of the seven types below.

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Plan a fence in 5 steps

1. 1Measure the runWork out the fence length from the field area and shape, and add cross fences.
2. 2Match the design to the animalCheck your state NRCS job sheet for wire count, heights and voltage.
3. 3Count posts and bracesDivide the length by the post spacing, and add braces at corners, gates and angles.
4. 4Price with local quotesUse extension budgets to compare designs, then ask suppliers for current prices.
5. 5Tension, test and inspectSet tension with in-line tensioners, test the voltage and inspect on a schedule.

7 Farm Fencing Options Compared

Understanding the types of agricultural fences available is essential for selecting the right boundary solution for your farm. Below are seven options, each with its structure, best use case, and where it falls short.

1. Barbed Wire Fencing

• Structure: Two to five strands of galvanized mild steel wire twisted together with sharp barbs spaced at regular intervals.
• Use Case: Large grazing areas, especially cattle containment on extensive acreage.
• Advantages:
  • About $1.99 per foot to build in Iowa State’s 2024 budget (five strands, materials and labour, gates excluded)
  • Build time in Iowa State’s budget: 39 labour hours per quarter-mile, against 18 for a five-wire electrified fence
  • Low material cost compared to panel or wood systems
• Drawbacks:
  • Sheep and goats need closer wire spacing than cattle
  • Barbs can cause physical injury to any animal that presses against the line

Iowa State’s budget assumes a 20-year useful life for barbed wire, and Georgia extension lists about 33 years in a humid climate for wire and posts together. Regular inspection of posts and wire tension helps a fence reach its expected life.

2. High-Tensile Electric Wire Fencing

• Structure: Galvanized high-tensile steel wire, typically 12.5 gauge Class III galvanized wire; state NRCS standards set the minimum tensile strength, for example 110,000 psi in Iowa NRCS Fence-Electric standard, strung with fewer posts than conventional wire fence.
• Use Case: Large-scale containment, rotational grazing paddocks, and long perimeter runs.
• Advantages:
  • About $1.21 per foot to build a five-wire electrified fence in Iowa State’s 2024 budget, which includes one quarter of an energizer (gates excluded)
  • Iowa State assumes a 25-year useful life (20 years for barbed and woven wire); Georgia extension lists about 25 years in a humid climate, below its 33 years for barbed and woven wire
  • Wide post spacing cuts labor and material costs versus barbed or woven wire
• Drawbacks:
  • Needs in-line tensioners to reach the 200 lb wire tension that Iowa and Rhode Island NRCS specify for large livestock
  • Needs an energizer, good grounding and regular voltage checks

A single strand of polywire for interior use costs less: Iowa State’s 2024 budget puts it at about $0.25 per foot, with a wire life of only four to five years. The gap between polywire and a permanent five-wire fence comes mainly from the number of strands and the type of posts.

3. Woven Wire Fencing

• Structure: A grid of vertical and horizontal woven wires, sometimes called “field” or “non-climb” fence.
• Use Case: Multi-species farms running goats, sheep and pigs together, or gardens needing wildlife exclusion.
• Advantages:
  • Iowa State’s budget lists woven wire as usable with cattle, sheep and hogs
  • Effective at excluding ground-level wildlife
  • For horses, UGA advises mesh with 2 to 4 inch openings, because hooves are easily caught in the 4 to 6 inch openings used for cattle
• Drawbacks:
  • About $2.34 per foot in Iowa State’s 2024 budget (48-inch wire with one barbed top strand), roughly 18 percent more than five-strand barbed wire
  • Needs more frequent inspection for sagging where wire crosses uneven ground

Iowa State lists woven wire as usable with cattle, sheep and hogs, and Purdue Extension names it as an option for goats. Iowa State assumes a 20-year useful life.

4. Welded Panel (Hog Panel) Fencing

• Structure: Heavy-duty welded steel wire panels forming a rigid, self-supporting grid.
• Use Case: Pigs, goats, sheep, and any escape-prone livestock that will test a fence physically.
• Advantages:
  • Life depends on panel gauge and coating, so ask the maker for the rated life
  • Rigid panels don’t sag the way strand wire does
  • Panel size and gauge vary by maker, so check the rated gauge before you buy
• Drawbacks:
  • Cost depends on gauge and panel height; none of the extension budgets reviewed here prices panels, so get local quotes
  • Installation labour is not covered by the extension budgets reviewed here

Where the containment pressure is highest, such as pens and sorting corrals, rigid panels are one option; compare local quotes and the rated gauge.

5. Electric Fencing for Livestock

• Structure: One or more strands of electric wire powered by a charger, used alone or layered onto an existing barbed or woven wire fence.
• Use Case: Temporary paddocks, rotational grazing, and adding a psychological deterrent to a physical fence.
• Advantages:
  • Lowest build cost in Iowa State’s 2024 budget: about $0.25 per foot for one-strand polywire (interior use) and $1.21 for a permanent five-wire fence
  • Easy to move or reconfigure as paddocks change
  • Trains animals to respect the boundary rather than relying purely on physical restraint
• Drawbacks:
  • Needs a reliable energizer and regular voltage checks — grass and weed growth against the wire causes grounding and voltage loss
  • Iowa’s NRCS standard sets a minimum shock of 1,000 volts for cattle and horses, 2,000 volts for sheep and 2,500 to 3,000 volts for goats (Iowa NRCS), so an undersized or poorly grounded charger fails silently

Farmonaut also offers carbon footprint tracking for farm operations that report on sustainability.

6. Wooden Post & Rail Fencing

• Structure: Wooden posts — cedar, pine, or treated lumber — spaced evenly and connected by horizontal rails.
• Use Case: Horses, decorative boundaries, and road-facing property lines where appearance matters.
• Advantages:
  • Traditional, visually appealing look that suits horse farms and highway frontage
  • Customizable height and rail count
  • 10–20 year lifespan when built from rot-resistant wood and maintained with stain or sealant
• Drawbacks:
  • Georgia extension says rail or plank fences are probably the most expensive to build and can carry significant maintenance cost
  • Needs regular inspection for rot and insect damage

Wood fencing makes sense where visibility and curb appeal justify the premium; it is rarely the answer when the goal is simply cheap linear containment.

7. Chain Link Fencing

• Structure: Interlocked steel wire mesh stretched between metal posts.
• Use Case: Small livestock pens, dog runs, and garden protection rather than open pasture.
• Advantages:
  • Quick, straightforward installation
  • Full visual access and airflow through the fence line
• Drawbacks:
  • Price varies with height, gauge and coating; none of the extension budgets reviewed here prices chain link, so get local quotes
  • No extension budget reviewed here covers chain link as a livestock fence

Chain link is a niche choice on a working farm — useful for small enclosures, rarely the right call for pasture perimeter.

Cost & Durability Comparison Table

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Build cost per foot for the same designs, in two price years

US$ per foot, straight 1,320 ft fence, materials and labour, gates excluded, Iowa prices

*Iowa State assumes polywire lasts four to five years and the other parts of an electric fence about 25 years. Cost figures are Iowa State’s 2024 estimates for a straight quarter-mile fence in Iowa (materials and labour, gates excluded); other states and years will differ, so get local quotes. Two sources give two life figures for barbed and woven wire because they assume different climates and parts.

Where the figures come from. The costs are from Iowa State University Extension’s fence budget (FM 1855, revised December 2024). It prices a straight quarter-mile (1,320 ft) fence at 2024 Iowa retail prices, with materials, tools and labour at $20 an hour and no gates. Totals were $1,593 for the five-wire electrified fence, $2,536 for eight-wire non-electric high-tensile, $2,630 for barbed wire and $3,083 for woven wire. Other states, terrain and labour rates will give other numbers. The dollar figures are not adjusted for inflation: Iowa State’s 2011 budget valued labour at $15.05 to $16.25 an hour, so part of the rise to 2024 is a higher labour rate.

Georgia’s Circular 774, reviewed March 2024, gives a second view for materials only. On its relative index, permanent electric or high-tensile fence scores 20, five-strand barbed wire 35 and 39-inch woven wire with two barbed strands 75, while a four-rail fence of treated boards scores 200 to 350 and a five-cable fence 500. The same table rates upkeep for barbed wire as high and for woven wire, permanent electric fence and four-rail fence as medium, which differs from the maintenance column above.

The University of Missouri Extension released a similar budget for woven wire, five-strand barbed wire and six-wire high-tensile fence at January 2024 prices (Missouri Ag Connection, 2024). Use it if you build in Missouri.

Cheapest Farm Fencing Options

If cost per foot decides the choice, Iowa State’s 2024 budget gives this order for a quarter-mile fence in Iowa: interior polywire ($0.25 per foot), five-wire electrified high-tensile ($1.21), eight-wire non-electric high-tensile ($1.92), barbed wire ($1.99) and woven wire ($2.34). The order stays the same when upkeep, interest and the assumed life are added: about $0.08, $0.16, $0.25, $0.34 and $0.40 per foot per year. This is one state’s budget with one labour rate, so use it to compare designs, not as a quote.

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Cost per foot per year, with upkeep and interest

US$ per foot per year, 2024 prices, 4 percent interest, 5 to 8 percent yearly upkeep, 20 to 25 year life (4 years for polywire)

One way to lower the average cost: run high-tensile electric wire (about $1.21 per foot in Iowa State’s 2024 budget) for long perimeter boundaries where per-foot cost matters most because the run is long, then switch to woven wire or welded panels only at gateways, corrals, and high-pressure corners where a cheaper fence would fail structurally. This mixed approach keeps the average cost per foot low across the whole property while putting money only where physical strength is actually needed.

How much fence you need per acre

Before you price any agricultural fence, work out the length. An acre is 43,560 square feet. For a square field, the side is the square root of the area, and the perimeter is four sides. The table gives perimeter lengths for square fields; gates and corners are extra.

Three things change the number:

• Shape. A rectangle twice as long as it is wide needs about 6% more fence than a square of the same area. Long, narrow or irregular fields need more.
• Cross fences. Splitting a square field into two paddocks adds one side length; four paddocks add two.
• Wire runs. For strand fences, multiply the fence length by the number of strands to get wire length, then add a margin for ties and splices.

Multiply the length by a local per-foot quote for your chosen fence type, then add gates, corner and end bracing, and an energizer for electric fence.

Livestock Fencing Options by Animal

The right livestock fencing option depends on the species being contained, not a blanket “best fence” answer. Iowa NRCS describes electric fence as a psychological deterrent, not a physical barrier, and suggests one to three wires for cattle depending on the class of cattle, with 10, 20 and 32 inches for the three-wire design. Sheep are smaller and can slip under or push through gaps that would stop cattle, so fence standards call for wires set closer together and closer to the ground. Goats test fences physically: Purdue Extension (2024) says two or three electrified wires that suit cattle would probably not hold goats, and suggests six or eight wires or woven wire. For pigs, Iowa State lists woven wire as usable with hogs, and the Iowa NRCS job sheet suggests a single electric wire at 12 inches for an internal swine fence. Horses need to see the fence to avoid injury. UGA’s horse guidance advises avoiding barbed and high-tensile wire where possible because horses find them hard to see, and says board fences 1 to 2 inches thick and 4 to 6 inches wide are easy to see.

• Cattle: Three-wire electric fence (Iowa NRCS suggests 10″, 20″ and 32″ for internal fences) — or barbed/high-tensile wire fence.
• Sheep: Electric fence with at least three wires (Iowa NRCS suggests 8″, 20″ and 32″ for internal fences) — or woven wire.
• Goats: Woven wire, or six to eight well-spaced electrified high-tensile wires; fewer wires may not hold goats (Purdue Extension, 2024).
• Pigs: Woven wire (Iowa State), or an internal electric wire at about 12 inches (Iowa NRCS).
• Horses: Board fencing, which horses can see easily; avoid barbed and high-tensile wire where possible (UGA).

State NRCS Job Sheet Specifications (Iowa and Rhode Island Examples)

NRCS state offices publish technical specifications for electric fence construction, and they differ from state to state. These are the figures worth writing down before you order materials.

• Wire gauge: 12.5 gauge, Class III galvanized high-tensile wire. Minimum tensile strength varies by state: 110,000 psi in Iowa (September 2018 job sheet) and 130,000 psi (archived January 2010 sheet) in a Rhode Island job sheet.
• Wire tension: 200 pounds for large livestock fencing, achieved with in-line tensioners, not by hand-pulling. An archived 2010 Rhode Island NRCS job sheet calls for 300 pounds for sheep and hair goats.
• Cattle strand heights: Iowa NRCS suggests 10, 20 and 32 inches for a three-wire internal fence, and five wires at 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 inches for a cattle perimeter.
• Sheep strand heights: Iowa suggests three wires at 8, 20 and 32 inches for internal sheep and goat fences, and eight wires from 4 to 52 inches for a predator-resistant perimeter. Spacing is closer than for cattle because sheep slip under wider gaps.
• Minimum shock: at least 1,000 volts for cattle and horses, 2,000 volts for sheep and 2,500 to 3,000 volts for goats, per the Iowa NRCS job sheet.
• Sources differ on the minimum voltage; see the note below this list.

These figures come from state NRCS documents: the Iowa Fence: Electric job sheet for practice 382 and an archived 2010 Rhode Island electric fence job sheet. NRCS publishes its practice documents through each state’s Field Office Technical Guide, and these two are dated 2018 and 2010 (the Rhode Island sheet is archived and is not current guidance) — check efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov directly for your state’s current amendment before finalizing a build, since a state office can publish a locally adjusted spec.

Voltage and energizer size. Sources give different minimums. The Iowa NRCS job sheet (September 2018) asks for at least 1,000 volts for cattle and horses, 2,000 for sheep and 2,500 to 3,000 for deer, goats, dogs and coyotes. Georgia extension (Circular 774, 2024) gives about 700 volts for short-haired cattle, pigs and horses and about 2,000 for long-haired cattle, sheep and goats.

For energizer size, Iowa NRCS asks for one joule of output for each mile of wire in the fence. Georgia extension suggests adding up the miles of electrified wire and adding 25 percent for losses from vegetation. Check your state’s current job sheet and the energizer maker’s guidance.

Electric fence safety. The archived 2010 Rhode Island NRCS job sheet says an energizer for a permanent electric fence must be UL or CSA approved and made for agricultural fencing, and that only one energizer should serve each fence. The Iowa NRCS job sheet says barbed wire will not be used on electric fences because it is a safety hazard, and it asks for lightning arrestors and a lightning choke to protect the energizer. Rules on electric fence, barbed wire and security fencing differ by place, so check local rules and your liability before you build, especially for fencing near roads or paths, for security, or along routes you ride on an ATV.

Best Materials for Farm Fences

Choosing the best material for farm fences affects durability, maintenance load, and total lifetime cost. Wood, galvanized steel and newer materials such as recycled plastic are the main choices.
Owners of bigger holdings can check fencing costs for large properties before committing to a material.

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Relative material cost of selected fence types

Georgia cost index, materials only, selected types from the circular’s table (PVC and polymer-coated rails not shown)

Wood

• Cedar, redwood, and treated pine resist decay and pests better than untreated softwoods.
• Best suited to post-and-rail or decorative fencing where appearance matters.
• Needs paint, stain, or sealant plus regular inspection at post bases, where moisture contact is highest.
• Pressure-treated or naturally rot-resistant wood extends service life toward the upper end of the 10–20 year range.

Galvanized & Welded Steel

• The backbone material for woven wire, welded panels, and high-tensile fence.
• Zinc galvanizing protects steel wire from rust, and Georgia extension says Class 3 coating can add 5 to 10 years of wire life in a humid climate.
• Welded panels are rigid and do not sag the way strand wire can.

Sustainable & Eco-Friendly Materials

• Bamboo fencing: Fast-growing and renewable; best for non-load-bearing or supplemental panels rather than primary livestock containment.
• Recycled plastics: Made from post-consumer waste, resistant to rot, insects, and UV exposure — a durable option for posts and boards.

Farmonaut’s carbon footprinting tools help track emissions tied to farm operations. Learn more about Farmonaut’s Carbon Footprinting capabilities here.

Installation: Posts, Spacing, Tensioning

Proper livestock fence installation determines whether a fence performs to its rated lifespan or fails years early. Three variables matter most: post choice, post spacing and depth, and wire tension.

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Line-post spacing in one archived job sheet, non-electric designs and polywire

Maximum feet between line posts, Rhode Island NRCS job sheet dated January 2010 (archived, not current guidance)

Choosing the Right Fence Posts

• Wooden posts: Best for high-pressure areas; use rot-resistant species or pressure-treated lumber.
• Steel T-posts: Faster to drive, resistant to decay, and commonly used for electric fence runs.
• Recycled plastic posts: An alternative for eco-conscious builds; check the maker’s rated life.

Spacing, Depth, and Tension

• Post Spacing: Spacing depends on the design. The Iowa NRCS job sheet (2018) allows line posts up to 100 feet apart for one or two electric wires and up to 50 feet apart for three or four wires without stays. A 2010 Rhode Island NRCS job sheet (archived, not current guidance) lists 8 to 16.5 feet for board, barbed and woven designs, and its own installation text is stricter for three or more electric strands, so follow your state’s current sheet. Georgia extension suggests 8 to 12 feet between posts around curves.
• Post Depth: The Iowa NRCS job sheet sets line posts at least 24 inches deep for fences with three or more wires, and 18 inches for one or two wires (24 inches in sandy loam or coarser soil). Brace assemblies go at least 2 feet deep.
• Tensioning: Iowa and Rhode Island NRCS specify an initial tension of 200 lb for large livestock, set with in-line tensioners. Georgia extension says to retension high-tensile wire at least once or twice a year.

Mark all boundaries and check for underground utilities before digging any post hole. Correct post depth and wire tension matter for any fence to reach its expected life; Iowa State’s budget assumes 25 years for high-tensile fence.

The Farmonaut app, available for Android and iOS, lets you draw a field on a map to estimate its boundary length; confirm with a tape or GPS before you order materials.

Count braces as well as line posts. The Iowa NRCS job sheet requires brace and end assemblies at all corners, gates and angles greater than 20 degrees. Its limits on line-post spacing depend on the wire count: up to 100 feet for one or two wires and up to 50 feet for three or four wires without stays. The calculator below counts line posts from the spacing you enter, and it leaves braces and gates to the gates line.

ATV Farm Fencing Solutions

An ATV-based fencing solution isn’t a distinct fence type — it’s a workflow: using an ATV or UTV to haul post-driving equipment, wire spools, and tensioning tools along a fence line too long or too rough for hand-carrying materials. This matters most for high-tensile electric wire and barbed wire projects on large acreage, where a crew covering a half-mile or mile-long boundary run needs a way to move a step-in post driver, wire reel stand, and fencing pliers without walking each load. A UTV with a trailer or bed rack can carry posts, wire and tools along the line. Follow the vehicle maker’s manual for loads, slopes and protective gear, and secure wire reels and tools before you ride.

For rotational grazing setups specifically, an ATV-towed reel unwinds and rewinds polywire or poly-tape for temporary paddock fencing.

Maintenance for Longevity

Regular, proactive fence maintenance extends lifespan toward the upper end of each type’s durability range and avoids the cost of premature full replacement.

Routine Inspection

• Walk fence boundaries on a regular schedule and after storms (Iowa NRCS) — check for loose wires, leaning or broken posts, rust, rot, or physical damage.
• Test electrified sections for proper voltage; a reading below your state standard’s minimum (1,000 volts for cattle and 2,000 for sheep in Iowa) means the fence is no longer an effective deterrent.

Prompt Repairs

• Replace broken rails, rotten wood, or failed fasteners immediately — delayed wood repairs compound into full-section replacement.
• Patch sagging or downed sections of woven or barbed wire before livestock discover the gap, not after.

Seasonal Adjustments

• In cold climates, recheck wire tension as temperature swings cause expansion and contraction; adjust to prevent sagging or overstretching.
• Clear grass and brush under electric fences — vegetation touching a hot wire can short it out and cut the voltage (Georgia extension).
• Inspect wooden components for insect damage or fungal decay during wet seasons.

Keep a written log of fence inspections and repairs; it can help with insurance claims after a containment failure. Farmonaut’s product traceability tool is built for tracking products through the supply chain, not for fence records.

Farm Security Fencing

Farm security fencing addresses a different problem than livestock containment: deterring theft of equipment, fuel, and stored inputs, and controlling unauthorized vehicle access rather than holding animals inside a boundary. The fence types best suited to livestock — barbed wire, high-tensile electric, woven wire — double as effective security perimeter, particularly barbed wire, which costs about $1.99 per foot in Iowa State’s 2024 budget and also forms a physical barrier against people. Welded panel and chain link are two other options a farm might consider around equipment yards and input storage; none of the extension budgets reviewed here prices them, so get local quotes. Rules on barbed wire and security fencing differ by place, so check local fence law and liability rules (and ask your insurer) before you build near roads, paths or neighbours.

A complete farm security setup can layer three elements: a physical perimeter fence (from the seven types above), locked gates with sturdy hinges and latches at every access point, and a monitoring layer — cameras, or satellite imagery of the property to check boundaries and access roads over time. Farmonaut’s satellite imagery can add that view without new physical infrastructure.

Fencing Cost Calculator

Use the calculator below to estimate fence length, posts and total cost from your own field size and your own local prices.

Try the numbers for your own farm below.

Financing & Cost-Effective Strategies

High-quality fencing is a major investment, but several approaches reduce upfront and ongoing costs without sacrificing containment or safety.

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Share of build cost that is labour and equipment

Percent of build cost, 1,320 ft fence, labour and equipment at $20 an hour, 2024 prices

• Government Programs: NRCS lists fence as conservation practice 382, and its job sheets say the practice helps apply other conservation practices, such as grazing systems. Ask your local NRCS service center whether cost-share is open in your state.
• Grants and Loans: Support for fencing differs by state and by year.
• Material Mixing: Use barbed or high-tensile wire for long boundary runs where per-foot cost matters most, and reserve woven wire or welded panels for gateways and corrals where physical strength matters more than cost.
• Maintenance Discipline: Iowa State’s budget puts yearly upkeep at 5 to 8 percent of the build cost, so a fence that needs less repair costs less per year.

Ask your local NRCS service center or extension office about current fence support.

Planning Fences with Farmonaut

Farmonaut provides satellite and AI tools for monitoring fields. The items below are general Farmonaut features, not fence-specific tools.

• Satellite-Based Land Mapping: Draw a field on a map to estimate its boundary length; confirm with a tape or GPS before ordering materials.
• AI-Based Farm Advisory: Farmonaut’s AI advisory gives field-level recommendations from satellite data.
• Blockchain Traceability: Built for tracking products through the supply chain; it is not a fence-inspection log.
• Carbon Footprint Tracking: Carbon tracking for farm operations, for sustainability reporting.
• Fleet and Resource Management: Coordinate farm fleet management for vehicles and crews.

Farmonaut’s platform, available on Android, iOS, Web, and API, gives farmers, agribusinesses and land managers satellite-based monitoring of their fields.

Developers can use the Farmonaut API for satellite, weather, and geospatial data, with full setup details in the developer documentation.

Managing many properties or leased parcels? Farmonaut’s Large Scale Farm Management solution is built for managing fields across many locations from one dashboard.

Frequently Asked Questions

Conclusion

There is no single best fence for a farm — there’s a best fence for each job on that farm. Barbed wire and high-tensile electric wire cover long cattle boundaries cheaply; woven wire holds sheep, goats and pigs where physical strength matters more than cost per foot; wood earns its higher price where visibility and appearance are part of the requirement. Build to your state NRCS’s specified wire gauge, strand height and voltage for the species you’re containing, tension wire with in-line tensioners, and inspect on a regular schedule and after storms.

Use the comparison table and calculator above to price out your own fence run, and revisit the USDA NRCS Field Office Technical Guide for your state before finalizing a design, since state specifications can differ and change.